Compare the synthesis and decomposition of biological macromolecules.
Synthesis of macromolecules is the creation of macromolecules or when two or more simple molecules combine to form polymers. Synthesis is demonstrated in the process of dehydration synthesis. Polymers are formed when dehydration synthesis adds or creates a water molecule when combining a short polymer and a unlinked monomer. Decomposition of macromolecules is the process of taking these molecules apart or breaking them down. This occurs during hydrolysis, when a water molecule is added to a polymer to break it down.
Where does the energy needed to drive the synthesis of biological macromolecules come from?
Where does the energy needed to drive the synthesis of biological macromolecules come from?
Macromolecules are essentially composed up of polymers, large molecules with many monomers. These polymers are formed during dehydration synthesis. During the synthesis of biological macromolecules, a water molecule will created when two simpler molecule combine.
How does the structure of polysaccharides, proteins, & nucleic acids influence the function of those molecules?
Polysaccharide, polymers primarily found in sugar, are responsible for structure and storage. The structure of these molecules is determined by the sugar monomers it is made up of and the positioning of the glycosidic linkages. Proteins serve for transport, storage, cellular communication, and structural support. Proteins are composed up of amino acids, whose sequence is determined by DNA. Changes in DNA will dictate changes in protein and affect its function. Nucleic acids, being composed of nucleotides, are divided into two categories. DNA will give directions for amino acid sequence and its own replication. On the other hand, RNA is in charge of protein synthesis. Nucleotides themselves are made up of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups.
How does the structure of DNA contribute to its roles in protein synthesis and heritability?
DNA is will affect the primary structure of proteins. Since DNA has information for its own replication, it directs the creation of mRNA and instructs it to carry the information for replication and to perform protein synthesis. During this process, amino acids are put in order so that they exactly replicate the amino acids that make up DNA.
Why is DNA a good molecule for information storage?
Due to its double helix shape, the DNA molecule is useful for storage. This double helix is created by DNA’s composition of two polynucleotides spiraling around an invisible axis. DNA also allow for flexibility and the creation of a large variety of proteins since it has an incrdibly large amount of sequences possible for nucleic bases.
How do the differences in the structure of DNA and RNA contribute to the difference in the functions of those molecules?
Even though there are differences, DNA and RNA are similar in that they are both composed of polynucleotides. These polynucleotides are each constructed from nucleotides. These nucleotides each contain a nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. However, DNA is composed of a deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base Purine, which contains the Adenine and Guanine, giving DNA its spiral. RNA is composed of ribose sugar and pyrimidines, which contain Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil. RNA is also only single stranded.
Explain how the sequence of amino acids in a protein determines each level of that protein’s structure.
The primary structure is directly affected by DNA. DNA is what contains the long sequence of amino acids that make up proteins and were inherited from our parents. The secondary structure deals with the protein coiling and folding due to the formation of hydrogen bonds along the repeating chain of amino acids, also known as a polypeptide backbone. Tertiary structure deals with the interactions between these coils and folds due to the hydrogen and ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. The formation of macromolecules by bonding several polypeptide bonds takes place during the last level, the quaternary structure.
How does the structure of polysaccharides, proteins, & nucleic acids influence the function of those molecules?
Polysaccharide, polymers primarily found in sugar, are responsible for structure and storage. The structure of these molecules is determined by the sugar monomers it is made up of and the positioning of the glycosidic linkages. Proteins serve for transport, storage, cellular communication, and structural support. Proteins are composed up of amino acids, whose sequence is determined by DNA. Changes in DNA will dictate changes in protein and affect its function. Nucleic acids, being composed of nucleotides, are divided into two categories. DNA will give directions for amino acid sequence and its own replication. On the other hand, RNA is in charge of protein synthesis. Nucleotides themselves are made up of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups.
How does the structure of DNA contribute to its roles in protein synthesis and heritability?
DNA is will affect the primary structure of proteins. Since DNA has information for its own replication, it directs the creation of mRNA and instructs it to carry the information for replication and to perform protein synthesis. During this process, amino acids are put in order so that they exactly replicate the amino acids that make up DNA.
Why is DNA a good molecule for information storage?
Due to its double helix shape, the DNA molecule is useful for storage. This double helix is created by DNA’s composition of two polynucleotides spiraling around an invisible axis. DNA also allow for flexibility and the creation of a large variety of proteins since it has an incrdibly large amount of sequences possible for nucleic bases.
How do the differences in the structure of DNA and RNA contribute to the difference in the functions of those molecules?
Even though there are differences, DNA and RNA are similar in that they are both composed of polynucleotides. These polynucleotides are each constructed from nucleotides. These nucleotides each contain a nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. However, DNA is composed of a deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base Purine, which contains the Adenine and Guanine, giving DNA its spiral. RNA is composed of ribose sugar and pyrimidines, which contain Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil. RNA is also only single stranded.
Explain how the sequence of amino acids in a protein determines each level of that protein’s structure.
The primary structure is directly affected by DNA. DNA is what contains the long sequence of amino acids that make up proteins and were inherited from our parents. The secondary structure deals with the protein coiling and folding due to the formation of hydrogen bonds along the repeating chain of amino acids, also known as a polypeptide backbone. Tertiary structure deals with the interactions between these coils and folds due to the hydrogen and ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. The formation of macromolecules by bonding several polypeptide bonds takes place during the last level, the quaternary structure.
Explain how the conditions of the environment that a protein is in effect the structure and function of that protein.
The bonds formed between the R groups of proteins are crucial in the tertiary structure of proteins and therefore to the function of the protein. Since these R groups are joined with hydrogen, ionic, and covalent bonds, and also hydrophobic interactions, anything that can destroy these bonds or interrupt the interaction may lead to protein malfunction. These bonds and interactions may be affected by a variety of things, ranging from changes in Ph, temperature, and salt concentrations. Eventually, it may even lead to the denaturation of proteins, making them biologically inactive.
Explain how the structure of lipids determines the polarity of the molecule.
Lipids are hydrophobic or nonpolar, meaning that they do not mix in with water. This is due to the nonpolar covalent bonds formed between hydrocarbons. Since lipids are not polar, meaning that they are not charged since the molecules they are composed up of share equal electronegativities, they will not mix with the hydrogen bonds that water molecules have.
If the chemistry of water occurs in aqueous solution, why are lipids useful in biological systems?
Explain how the structure of lipids determines the polarity of the molecule.
Lipids are hydrophobic or nonpolar, meaning that they do not mix in with water. This is due to the nonpolar covalent bonds formed between hydrocarbons. Since lipids are not polar, meaning that they are not charged since the molecules they are composed up of share equal electronegativities, they will not mix with the hydrogen bonds that water molecules have.
If the chemistry of water occurs in aqueous solution, why are lipids useful in biological systems?
Lipids being hydrophobic is beneficial since they can then store energy for long periods of time, insulate temperatures and protect interior organs. Lipids are also what make the cell membranes work and protect the inside of the cell wall. Lipids are what give phospholipids their usefulness in creating cell membranes. The tail section of the phospholipid is non-polar and sticks to other non-polar ends keeping bad stuff out of our cells.
Why is starch easily digested by animals, while cellulose isn’t?
Starch is composed of alpha linkages, meaning that the OH is in the down position. Animals can therefore digest starch because they have the enzymes necessary to hydrolyze alpha linkages and therefore digest starch. Cellulose, on the other hand, is consturcted with beta-linkages. These are when the OH is in the “up” position and can from a straight line or wall. Animals do not have the enzymes necessary to hydrolyze beta-linkages and therefore cannot digest cellulose.
Explain how directionality influences structure and function of the following polymer:
1. Nucleic acids
Why is starch easily digested by animals, while cellulose isn’t?
Starch is composed of alpha linkages, meaning that the OH is in the down position. Animals can therefore digest starch because they have the enzymes necessary to hydrolyze alpha linkages and therefore digest starch. Cellulose, on the other hand, is consturcted with beta-linkages. These are when the OH is in the “up” position and can from a straight line or wall. Animals do not have the enzymes necessary to hydrolyze beta-linkages and therefore cannot digest cellulose.
Explain how directionality influences structure and function of the following polymer:
1. Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are what contain the information from the DNA to build what is our body. They provide directions for protein synthesis and replication. They are composed of nucleotides, with each nucleotide containing one pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and 1 out of the four nitrogen bases. It is these nitrogen bases where the information is found as their sequence determines a nucleic acids directions.
2. Proteins
Proteins are composed up of polypeptides that are built from only 20 different amino acids. These amino acids determine the function of the protein with the R-side chain. Each polypeptide will have a different amino acid sequence telling the protein what to do. These amino acid chains will has a carboxyl end and an amino end. Proteins will then coil, fold, or bend into a precise shape.
3. Carbohydrates
Describe the basic structure and functions of key biological polymers (DNA, RNA, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins).
2. Proteins
Proteins are composed up of polypeptides that are built from only 20 different amino acids. These amino acids determine the function of the protein with the R-side chain. Each polypeptide will have a different amino acid sequence telling the protein what to do. These amino acid chains will has a carboxyl end and an amino end. Proteins will then coil, fold, or bend into a precise shape.
3. Carbohydrates
There are monosaccharides the most simplest of sugars. Then there are disaccharides and polysaccharides. While mono and disaccharide are quick sources of energy for our body, Polysaccharides play a major role in structure. If a polysaccharide is has alpha linkages then the molecule will be helical. Starch, which can be digested is composed like this. Carbohydrates will beta linkages will be straight. Cellulose, what makes plant membranes, is constructed like this and cannot be digested by animals
Describe the basic structure and functions of key biological polymers (DNA, RNA, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins).
DNA is composed of up of nucleic acids. These nucleic acids in turn are composed up of polymers that are made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides each contain deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and 1 out of the four nitrogenous bases. The deoxyribose will combine with the phosphate group using hydrogen bonds in order to create the DNA backbone. DNA contains our genetic, inherited material and the instructions to create everything that our body is.
RNA is similar to DNA, with the exceptions that it has ribose sugar, is single stranded, and contains Uracil. RNA is what contains the instructions for the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. RNA also serves to deliver and link amino acids of the proteins.
LIpids also serve as a variety of functions. They are used for the long-term store of energy, insulation of heat, and internal organ protection. They are composed of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules. The fatty acids molecules are long chains of carbon and hydrogen and end with a carboxyl group. Unsaturated fats are liquid and saturated fats are solids. Phospholipids are what compose the cell membrane. The hydrophobic qualities of lipid is what makes phospholipids work for cell membranes to keep the bad stuff out.
Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy in our bodies. They are simply sugars. The most simple ones are known as monosaccharides and disaccharides. Common monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. Common disaccharides are sucrose. These are like tiny sources of energy that our body can easily use. Polysaccharides take on a more complex role in aiding to build several structures. The beta pleated cellulose is a polysaccharide that makes up plant cell membranes and gives them their crunch. Starch is what composes bread and allows our body to store this energy we get from the bread.
Proteins are like the building blocks for structures within our body. There are four levels of organization, with the first one, primary structure, being directed by our inherited DNA. Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are made up of one amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a R-side chain, which determines the structure and function of the protein. Proteins serve to do a variety of things within our bodies, ranging from regulating chemical processes, being antibodies, and being hormones. This is dependent on the amino acids that make up proteins.
Justify how structure imparts function for key biological molecules (DNA, RNA, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, ATP) and cell organelles (nucleus, Golgi, ER, mitochondria, plasma membrane chloroplasts, vacuoles) and describe how they interact in key biological processes.
DNA and RNA are able to contain all the information necessary for the construction of an organism due to their complexity. DNA and RNA have an enormous amount of possible sequences for amino acids that they can produced many different types of proteins. Lipids are critical to the cell membrane as they hydrophobic quality is present in phospholipids and allows the cell membrane to be able to keep nutrients in and bad stuff out. Carbohydrates are the body’s primary molecule for energy and ATP. The body is able to break down carbs into glucose that is then used for cellular, tissue, and organ functions. Polypeptides are what make up proteins and are made up of 20 amino acids. The proteins created with polypeptides serve as structural support, storage, transport, and aid to the immune system.
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